The Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony Essay - 1329 Words

The Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony Part 1 - How reliable is Eyewitness testimony? The Reconstructive nature of memory - Schemas and Stereotypes The reconstructive nature of memory is related to the schema theory. A schema is a package of memory that is organized and developed throughout our lives. Schemas are stored in long term memory. Most people have similar schemas and this was recognized by Bower, Black and Turner (1979) when they asked several people to recall the schema for the most important things they do when they go out to a restaurant for a meal. They found out that most people put the same main aspects in their schemas. Bartletts theory of Reconstructive Memory is†¦show more content†¦Some parts of information were forgotten and others were exaggerated. Bartletts study showed how our cultural expectations or stereotypes lead to predictable changes in memory. Stereotypes are schemas that summarize large amounts of information. Like schemas, stereotypes influence memory. He argued that schemas affect the retrieval process rather than the initial storage, but a study by Cohen (1981) suggested that schemas and stereotypes are important at both stages of memory: initial storage and retrieval. The effects of leading questions An eyewitnesss testimony about an event can be affected by the questions that are asked. For example, if the experimenter asks, did you see the broken headlight? rather than did you see a broken headlight? the use of the word the suggests there was a broken headlight and therefore the participant goes on to build up a memory for that headlight (Loftus and Zanni 1975). The language used in questioning eyewitnesses may alter what they remember. Loftus and Palmer (1975) showed their participants a series of projector slides of a multiple car accident. The participants then answered specific questions. It was found out that the information implicit in the question affected memory, even though the questions apparently only differedShow MoreRelatedThe Reliability Of Eyewitness Testimony999 Words   |  4 Pagesfairly ill-informed on the reliability of eyewitness testimony with judges having the most. Judges only had about an 8% difference in knowledge when compared to jurors. With this information it is very clear that education on the reliability of eyewitness testimony needs to become more of a general knowledge information for the everyone, especially people who are involved in upholding the law. Another factor to look into when evaluating the accuracy eyewitness testimony is the role that memory playsRead MoreThe reliability of eyewitness testimony has become a popular research topic in applied and social1200 Words    |  5 PagesThe reliability of eyewitness testimony has become a popular research topic in applied and social psychology since Loftus and Palmer’s study in 1974 (see Steblay, 1997; Wright Loftus, 1998; Deffenbacher, Bornstein, Penrod, McGorty, for reviews). Participants viewed videos or slides of traffic accidents (Loftus Palmer, 1974) or a criminal act (Roediger, Jacoby, McDermott, 1996; Cutler, Penrod, Martens, 1987) and afterwards were asked several questions about what they had just seen. The manipulationRead MoreReliability of the Human Memory1339 Words   |  5 PagesReliability of the human memory in eyewitness memory In this essay it will be argued how the human memory for recalling details of past events is not reliably accurate and that it will be interpreted through the reliability of memory in eyewitness memory and testimony. The human memory is a complex finding in the cognitive research of psychology, which can be explained by many different contributing factors but eyewitness is dependent upon the accuracy of long-term memory. However, research evidenceRead MoreThe Role of Eyewitness Testimony and the Weapon Effect in a Criminal Investigation 1241 Words   |  5 PagesEyewitness testimony plays a crucial role in criminal investigations. Thus, it is important to know how to eliminate factors that can negatively impact eyewitnesses’ recall ability. The result of eyewitness misidentification can lead to numerous inaccurate and wrongful convictions. One study suggests that more than 75,000 people a year become criminal defendants on the basis of eyewitness identifications (Schechel, OToole, Easterly, Loftus, 2006, p.178). Another study has shown that approximatelyRead MoreEyewitness Testimony Essay1299 Words   |  6 Pagespeople think things happened that never truly happened. Eyewitness testimo ny has always played an important role as evidence in the courts system. Juries on a trial tend to believe eyewitness testimony over any other evidence, even if other evidence differs from the eyewitness testimony. When little other evidence is presented, eyewitness testimony tends to be the primary focus. Many wrongful convictions have occurred due to these false eyewitness statements. According to George Vallas, in â€Å"A surveyRead MoreHow Does The Brain Malfunctions Affect The Justice System?1246 Words   |  5 Pageswrongfully convicted individuals by the eyewitness which is a huge issue in the system (Weir, 2016). It is crucial to be knowledgeable of the factors that can impede memory. The person that actually committed the crime should be held responsible for their actions, not only for justice, but for the safety of others as well. There are many factors to consider when psychologists and scientists are trying to figure out reliability of eyewitness testimony. The ability to recall or recognize isRead MoreEyewitness Testimony And Its Impact On The Outcome Of A Trial892 Words   |  4 PagesHow Accurate Are Eyewitness Testimonies? Have you ever been a witness to a crime? Would you feel comfortable if prosecutors relied on your eye witness testimony alone for a conviction? According to â€Å"The Magic of the Mind†, eyewitness testimony which relies on the accuracy of human memory, has an enormous impact on the outcome of a trial. Eyewitness testimony is a legal term. During an eyewitness testimony, the witness usually goes into an account of the crime he or she has witnessed. This can includeRead MoreAccuracy of an Eyewitness Testimony Essay2096 Words   |  9 PagesThe Accuracy of an Eyewitness Testimony Student: Amy Mason Number: 2842657 Tutor: Serena Nicholls Tutorial Time: Thursday 10am - 10:50am Due date: Friday 21st September 21, 2012 Word count: 1858 Psychological research shows that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate, therefore it should not be used in the criminal justice system. Discuss. The reliability if an eyewitness testimony is questionable. The witness may be so certain that the person that thy are pointing out is one hundredRead MoreEyewitness Testimony And Its Effect On The Credibility Of Eyewitness Testimonies952 Words   |  4 PagesEyewitness testimony is a hot button issue in not only the criminal justice field but also the psychology field as well. It continues to be argued that this type of â€Å"evidence† is far too unreliable for the court room and can ultimately end up punishing the wrong person for a crime they did not commit. The influence of an eyewitness testimony cannot be denied as research has showed that, â€Å"adding a single prosecution eyewitness to a murder trial summary increased the percentage of mock jurors’ guiltyRead MoreEyewitness Testimony And The American Psychological Association1580 Words   |  7 Pagesmodern law and judicial practices, eyewitness testimony has been a crucial part in reaching verdicts in court. The opinions and observations of bystanders or active participants in a crime scene are often considered to be very valuable in determining the guilt or innocence of accused individuals. However, there has been a large amount of scrutiny in the law world concerning both misappropriated and untrue testimonies administered in courts of law. Although the testimony of individuals can simply be misinterpreted

Fashion Trends Shaped by Economic Issues Essay - 984 Words

The 1920’s, also called the roaring 20’s, was a time of change. During this time period the fashion for both men and women was changing immensely. The aftermath of WWI caused America to enter a vigorous era. As a result of the role of women during the war, many customs and morals were changing. The Stock Market started booming, many new dances and music came about, and women got the right to vote and enter the workforce. There was an uprise in almost every activity, and fashion was definitely one (Tirocchi, Anna and Laura). Although fashion varied throughout the decade, one could notice a drastic change from the prior fashion. There were many factors, like said above, that played into the changes of the 1920’s. As a result of World†¦show more content†¦It wasn’t until the 1930s that ready to wear clothes became available with multiple fabrics. Fabrics started to become more elaborate. They could now be embroidered or have prints and design s. Many women began to wear scarves with fringed edges. This was when beaded designs, bright colors and fringes became popular on dresses too (Hossell). Like clothing, the 1920‘s also took a great tole on women’s accessorization, the use of cosmetics, and tanning. Some popular accessories girls wore were long strand of pearls, bangles, dangling earrings and furs. The strands of pearls were normally looped a few time around the neck. Long straight fur coats without curves became very popular (Women’s Fashion Accessories). Women began getting their eyebrows thinned to emphasize a younger face. They started wearing make up around the eyes to make them look larger. Lipstick became popular to accent the upper lip and depth of the lower lip. Because women wanted to change their look with makeup, the makeup market started booming during this decade. Although you could buy makeup, few women still made their own makeup. They used soot for eyeshadow and petroleum jelly mixed with soot for mascara. Women began to wear heels, the most popular being the ankle-strap cuban heeled shoe. They wore brimmed hats, such as a cloche hat to finish their look. Later in decade, more headbands with feather were being worn instead of brimmed hats. This look coming from theShow MoreRelatedFashion in the 1950s1437 Words   |  6 PagesFashion in the 1950s had spawned a wide variety of styles with elements of originality as well as new distinctive styles, which had added a classic new age twist to the history of European fashion. Recovering from the catastrophic tragedies from the Second World War, the fifties had given hope to the people and also a new start of life of many people to choose their future freely. Due to the massive recover of the economy, the technological advancement allowed mass production of clothing in the fiftiesRead More Response to The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s 1408 Words   |  6 Pagesand economical iss ues of the early twentieth century, youth played an active role in contemporary life. Adolescents responded to issues through altering their habits, behaviors and viewpoints. Their responses became evident in the public setting and American culture evolved. The transformation of American culture was spearheaded by youth who questioned and went against cultural norms of past generations. Societal changes were visible through family, education, socialization, fashion and style andRead MoreEssay The Creation of Modern Dating1271 Words   |  6 PagesA quote taken John McKeon which served as a very accurate representation of teenage life and culture in the 50’s. But, of course, the teenagers didn’t care about the rules in this decade, especially in North America. With newfound freedom from an economic boom after WWII which didn’t require teenagers to work anymore, teenagers, with a lot more free time, did all sort of things like listen to â€Å"rock n’ roll † and â€Å"bop† or go dating or adoring black rock stars, all of which were considered â€Å"rebellious†Read MorePolitics And Popular Culture During The 1960s1279 Words   |  6 Pagesthey were. America in the 1980s was inclined to challenge authority and tradition, as the people were vibing with attitude and vivid thoughts. This newly found confidence was introduce with the electron of Ronald Reagan, generating both social and economic change. Reagan’s restoration of the economy gave the people a sense of relief, allowing them to avail a life of extravagance and prosperity. As a result, pop culture conquered the scene. Politics and popular culture had a great influence on one anotherRead MoreThe Events Of World War I1245 Words   |  5 Pagesprogressive, while other parts remained true to right wing beliefs, and as a result, coexistence proved to be too difficult. While Germany was having its own civil issues stemming from internal unrest, outside fact ors would also greatly influenced the crises which would call into question the future of Germany. Although one single issue cannot be determined as the sole cause of the crises, the major influences which factored into the upending of German society can be narrowed down to the Treaty ofRead MoreEnvironmental Challenges Facing The American Auto Industry820 Words   |  3 PagesHow the Economic Downturn is Affecting Automakers The countrywide automotive industry in USA are changing the expense of recyclables upwards almost 50 % and the declining US dollar are growing pressures During U.S. exports have become appealing, other lands are waging a cash war to stop their moneys from dropping. Another factor influencing national automakers is the expanding demand for high tech equipment -fostering increase in exports and creation by 10% to 30%. 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(SOURCE) Unfortunately Hollywood had also come to symbolize â€Å"the new morality† of the 1920s. It was a mixture of glamor, extravagance, and fun which would lead to economic trouble years later. The rise of mass culture impact became crucial in this time. The spectors were highly influenced with what they saw in the films. For some people the 1920s saw a new morality symbolized by the flapper who danced to jazz,

Conflict Management for Poor Communication†MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about theConflict Management for Poor Communication. Answer: Introduction and Thesis When different individuals are working together, conflict is likely to arise and is mainly caused by differences in the values and personalities of employees. A lot of people try to avoid conflicts at all costs whereas other people have the tendency of blaming something else or another person for causing the conflict. Such responses cannot resolve the conflict and might in fact worsen the situation (Whillas, 2010). It is of note that managers spend at least 25% of their time resolving conflicts within the place of work (Trudel Reio, 2011). Conflict often stem from issues between managers and staff members and/or between different staffs working in the company (Brubaker et al., 2014). It arises whenever there is a perception of incompatible or contrary interests between various participants in the place of work (Rahim, 2016). A conflict could be very destructive if left unresolved. Dealing with conflict within the place of work in a timely fashion is of great importance in maintainin g a healthy work environment. The manager should not believe that a conflict would just fade away. This would be an erroneous assumption to make considering that simple conflicts could actually grow into big problems if not handled in an appropriate way (Papenhausen Parayitam, 2015). Thesis statement: This paper evaluates causes of conflict in the scenario described. In addition, the possible strategies for conflict resolution which could have been applied by Nick are discussed. Evaluation of the Causes of Conflict Poor Communication Poor communication is a major cause of workplace conflicts in business organizations. Singleton et al. (2011) pointed out that dissimilar styles of communication could bring about misunderstandings between staff members or between a manager and an employee. Poor communication could lead to a difference in communication styles. It could also bring about failure to communicate. Lack of communication is a form of poor communication. Poor communication in the place of work does not does cause conflict, it also reduces employee morale and productivity (Runde Flanagan, 2010). Cases of poor communication are common in the scenario that resulted in conflict in the place of work. For example, owing to poor communication between Nick and the Senior Manager, Nick was not given adequate guidance by the Senior Manager regarding how he should do his duties. During Nicks initial week at work upon joining the Central Community Agency as a Programme Coordinator, the Senior Manager gave him the duty roster. Additionally, the Senior Manager informed Nick of the days that he was to attend to counter as well as other events and committee meetings that he was supposed to attend. However, the Senior Manager did not give additional information regarding how Nick should perform his job duties. The Senior Manager told Nick if he had any questions, he should liaise with the organizations Assistant Manager. There was also lack of communication between Nick and the Assistant Manager. At his first Womens Wing meeting, Nick was not sure of what to do and when he approached the Assistant Manager for help, the Assistant Manager did not help him but instead asked him to return later because the Assistant Manager was busy at the time. For the next 2 days, the Assistant Manager was away and therefore Nick could not find him for help. Nick then tried to approach the other employees in the organization for guidance on how to organize an event but this was not successful because they were all too busy with their own events to provide Nick with any appropriate guidance. Conflicting Perceptions The other notable cause of conflict in the scenario is conflicting or different perceptions between Nick and the Assistant Manager. For example, Nick wanted the Assistant Manager to help him in his task on several occasions when there were many customers but the Assistant Manager declined to assist him apparently because that was not his duty; it was Nicks responsibility to attend to customers. It is worth mentioning that there were a number of occasions in which Nick was on duty with the Assistant Manager and when Nick was attending to an enquiry at the counter or was on the phone attending to an enquiry, the Assistant Manager would not step in to help him if there were other clients at the counter waiting. Even though Nick mentioned this issue to the organizations Senior Manager, the Senior Manager just told him to learn to give and take, which infuriated Nick. This also made Nick dissatisfied with his work. Misunderstandings Conflicts in the place of work could be caused by misunderstandings regarding the objectives, aims and nature of a job; wages and work conditions; differing expectations with regard to how duties should be performed; differences in priorities, needs, beliefs and values; and the different responsibilities of staff members and the managers (Dillon, 2017; Brandt, 2011). Thanks to misunderstandings at the place of work, Nick did not recognize that he had to attend an event on his day off and not getting time-off in lieu because he is given an allowance. It is notable that to Nicks understanding, the allowance that he was given by the organization was for counter duty and shift duty, not for attending an event on his day off. This was a major source of conflict that Nick faced in the organization. Differing Values Differing values are a significant cause of conflict in organizations. Any place of work comprises people who view the world in different ways. Conflicts arise when there is a lack of understanding and acceptance of these differences (McNary, 2012; Papenhausen Parayitam, 2015). Differing values is a notable cause of conflict in the organization. In particular, Nick and the seniors in the agency had different values that resulted in conflict between them. At one particular time, Nick spent a number of hours of his own free time to create a proposal on overcoming some of the challenges that he was facing in the organization. He gave that proposal to the Senior Manager who then asked the Assistant Manager to look at it. However, when Nick approached the Assistant Manager, the Assistant Manager informed him that the proposal was not a priority. He also told Nick that the proposal was not part of the Key Performance Indicators and therefore he would only attend to that proposal if he had time. Put simply, while Nick considered his proposal important, the Assistant Manager did not consider it important and thus had no time for it. Consequently, Nick was not motivated to continue working in the agency and his job performance started to decline. Frustrations Because of Criticism and Lack of Support by the Assistant Manager Whenever people become stressed or frustrated, they become more irritable and have a higher likelihood of creating conflicts than at other times (De Dreu et al., 2010). The main causes of work-related stress that caused Nick to create conflict in the agency were criticism and lack of support from the Assistant Manager, as well as tension between Nick and the Assistant Manager. During one particular incident between the Assistant Manager and Nick, the Assistant Manager was sitting at his desk and not giving a helping hand although there were 5 customers at the counter waiting. One of them criticized Nick for being slow. The Assistant Manager then told Nick that he has to be more efficient in his task and that he would record this on Nicks performance review. The two then argued given that Nick was very frustrated and felt that the Assistant Manager did not have basis for making such as a remark. Nick was also frustrated because he felt that whatever was to be addressed by the Assistan t Manager should have been done in private, not in front of customers. Evaluation of the Conflict Resolution Strategies Compromise There are several conflict resolution strategies that businesses often employ. They include collaboration, compromising, avoidance, accommodating and competing (McAllum, 2013). However, not all these approaches are suitable for the scenario described. For the situations in the case study, the appropriate conflict resolution strategies that can be utilized to resolve the conflict between Nick and the managers are compromise and collaboration. Through compromising, the compromiser would try to find ways of making a deal and meet halfway. It is worth mentioning that in this conflict resolution strategy, the needs of each party are met only partially (Lipsky, 2015). The conflicting parties find the middle ground in which a little is given and a little is gotten by each party. According to Lawless and Trif (2016), a compromiser exhibits skills of negotiation and moderation. An over-utilization of compromise signifies a lack of trust and a loss of the broader picture perspective. In additi on, there might be needless confrontations and frequent power struggles if compromise is under-utilized (Doherty Guyler, 2012). Using the compromise strategy to resolve the conflict in the workplace at the agency, Nick and the Assistant Manager would both give up part of what they needed/wanted in order to resolve the problem and conflict between them. As a result of using this conflict resolution strategy, the Assistant Manager wins some and Nick also wins some since both of them were ready to give a little (Katz Flynn, 2013). In essence, this conflict resolution strategy reduces the probability that one party in the conflict feels slighted by how the conflict was settled. Collaboration This strategy for resolving conflicts is also known as the ideal alternative. The goal of collaboration is essentially to find a creative solution that everyone would accept. Through this strategy, the conflicting parties work together to find a solution that is mutually beneficial (Brubaker et al., 2014). The collaborator using this strategy for conflict resolution exhibits reasonableness as well as a capacity to listen, empathize and understand. When there is no adequate collaboration, low empowerment and a lack of commitment could occur (Runde Flanagan, 2010). Conversely, when collaboration is over-utilized, too much time might be spent on matters that are unimportant and additional work may be created consequently. It generally takes energy and time to execute collaboration in a correct manner (Trudel Reio, 2011). Using collaboration as a strategy to resolve the conflict in the agency as described in the scenario, Nick and the agencys Assistant Manager would work together for the purpose of finding an agreeable solution to the conflict between them. When Nick and the Assistant Manager collaborate to find an agreeable solution, the result would be win-win for the two: Nick wins and the Assistant Manager also wins since the two of them are ready to work together. Conclusion In sum, there are five main causes of conflict in the scenario. The first one is poor communication between Nick and the managers at the agency. For instance, as a result of poor communication between Nick and the Senior Manager, Nick was not given sufficient guidance by the Senior Manager with regard to how he should carry out his duties. The second cause is different perceptions between Nick and the agencys Assistant Manager. Nick, for instance, wanted the Assistant Manager to assist him in his task on many occasions in which there were a lot clients but the Assistant Manager refused to help him because apparently that was Nicks duty, not his. The third cause is misunderstandings in the place of work. The fourth cause is differing values between Nick and the managers. Nick and the seniors in the agency had different values that resulted in conflict between them. For instance, while Nick considered his proposal important, the seniors in the agency did not see it as a priority. The f inal cause of the conflict is frustrations due to criticism and lack of support by the Assistant Manager. Collaboration and compromising are the conflict resolution strategies appropriate for the scenario. Through collaboration, the conflicting parties, who in this case include Nick and the senior managers at the agency, work together to find a solution that is mutually beneficial. On the other hand, through compromising, conflicting parties find the middle ground in which a little is given and a little is gotten by each party. Financial thought on the topic is that in any place of work, conflict is a normal occurrence and it could occur amongst staff members and between managers and staffs. Any conflict in the place of work should be resolved as quickly as possible before it grows into a bigger conflict. A conflict could be very destructive if it is not resolved. References Brandt, M. A. (2011). How to make conflict work for you. Nursing Management, 32(11), 32. Brubaker, D., Noble, C., Fincher, R., Park, S. K., Press, S. (2014). Conflict Resolution in the Workplace: What Will the Future Bring?. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 31(4), 357-386. doi:10.1002/crq.21104 De Dreu, C. W., Evers, A., Beersma, B., Kluwer, E. S., Nauta, A. (2010). A theory-based measure of conflict management strategies in the workplace. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 22(6), 645-668. doi:10. 1002/job. 107 Dillon, K. (2017). Managing conflict constructively. Rotman Management, 52-57. Doherty, N., Guyler, M. (2012). The Essential Guide to Workplace Mediation and Conflict Resolution : Rebuilding Working Relationships. London: Kogan Page. Katz, N. H., Flynn, L. T. (2013). Understanding Conflict Management Systems and Strategies in the Workplace: A Pilot Study. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 30(4), 393-410. doi:10.1002/crq.21070 Lawless, J., Trif, A. (2016). Managing interpersonal conflicts at work by line managers. Irish Journal Of Management, 35(1), 74-87. doi:10.1515/ijm-2016-0005 Lipsky, D. B. (2015). The Future of Conflict Management Systems. Conflict Resolution Quarterly, 33S27-S34. doi:10.1002/crq.21133 McAllum, K. (2013). Workplace Conflict: Three Paths to Peace. IESE Insight, (18), 48-55. McNary, L. D. (2012). The Term "Win-Win" in Conflict Management: A Classic Case of Misuse and Overuse. Journal Of Business Communication, 40(2), 144-159. Papenhausen, C., Parayitam, S. (2015). Conflict Management Strategies as Moderators in the Antecedents to Affective Conflict and its Influence on Team Effectiveness. Journal Of Business Management, 21(1), 101-119. Rahim, M. A. (2016). Reducing job burnout through effective conflict management strategy. Current Topics In Management, 18201-212. Runde, C. E., Flanagan, T. A. (2010). Developing Your Conflict Competence : A Hands-On Guide for Leaders, Managers, Facilitators, and Teams. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Singleton, R., Toombs, L. A., Taneja, S., Larkin, C., Pryor, M. G. (2011). Workplace conflict: A strategic leadership imperative. International Journal Of Business Public Administration, 8(1), 149-163. Trudel, J., Reio, T. G. (2011). Managing workplace incivility: The role of conflict management styles-antecedent or antidote?. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(4), 395-423. doi:10.1002/hrdq.20081 Whillas, S. (2010). No better time to manage conflict. MHD Supply Chain Solutions, 40(4), 79.